Human brains process information at different levels; while some areas
process sensory information to provide a "realistic" awareness of our
body and its spatial orientation, other parts deal with more nebulous
aspects such as dreams and hallucinations,
"… from the Latin verb halucinari,
… to wander mentally or to be absent-minded. It has its root in the
Greek verb aluein, which means to wander or to be distraught." (Blom, 2010, p. 219)
While hallucinations mainly occur while awake, they have, "… similarities to sleep-related experiences such as hypnagogic* and hypnopompic* hallucinations, dreams and parasomnias," (Waters et al. 2016, p. 1098).
[* NB. From the Greek, Hypnos = sleep + agōgos = "guide" or "leader" which occurs when falling sleep, and, Hypnos + pompe, "sending away" which occur when one is awakening].
With both pathological, and non-pathological origins, Out-of-Body Experiences (OBE),
represent a specific type of hallucinatory experience. Although
originally introduced by Tyrrell, (1953, p. 149), to describe
Near-Death-Experiences, (NDE),
as Brugger, Regard and Landis (1997) pointed out, the term OBE has
progressively replaced older occult terminology, such as "astral
projection," (p. 25), and, is now more commonly used to refer to
experiences similar to the following,
" ... of departing from one's physical body and observing both one's self and the world from outside one's body." (Carroll, 2003, p. 270);
"… the self is
perceived as being outside the body (disembodiment) with or without the
impression of seeing the body from an elevated and distanced
visuo-spatial perspective" (De Ridder, et al. 2007, p. 1829).
Blanke, Arzy and Landis, (2008), suggested that OBEs should be classified as a form of autoscopic phenomena,
" … the combined
classification of the well-known phenomenon of out-of-body experience
with the less known phenomena of autoscopic hallucination and
heautoscopy is important since during all three autoscopic phenomena
the subject has the impression of seeing a second own body (or double)
in extrapersonal space." (p. 430)
In an early attempt to differentiate between different types of OBEs, Fox (1920a), classified them as "Scientific" or "Occult;"
"(а) Scientific:
It is merely a new brain
state, the product of self-induced trance, and the seeming external
experiences all originate within the mind of the investigator — a third
level of consciousness, differing from both waking life and ordinary
dream, and far more vivid.
(b) Occult:
The spirit actually
leaves the entranced physical vehicle and functions — perfectly aware
of so doing — apart from it upon the astral plane, the transition from
normal waking life being achieved without any break in consciousness." (Fox, 1920a, p. 190)
While Fox's occult beliefs make these definitions scientifically
questionable, hereafter, for the sake of convenience, we shall refer to
all OBEs, as being either "Scientific" or "Occult."
§
Experiences similar to OBEs have been reported since ancient times.
Many of these involved attempts to "communicate" with supernatural
beings. Early hominins appear to have attributed the overwhelming
powers of nature to the actions of supernatural beings, and, living in
constant danger, it seems they, began to seek the help of these spirits
to survive. When this began is unknown, however, Coulson, Staurset and
Walker, (2011) noted that, at least 70,000 years ago, hunter-gatherers
in the Kalahari Desert, were already worshipping a 6.0 x 2.0 metre,
python-shaped rock in the Rhino Cave in the Tsodilo Hills; similarly,
"Based
on commonalities to shamanic practices of Australian aborigines, who
became culturally isolated between 50,000 and 65,000 years ago,
shamanism can be traced to the middle Paleolithic period at the onset
of the Cognitive Revolution around 70,000 BP." (Flor-Henry, Shapiro, and Sombrun, 2017; p. 6)
Within most primitive groups would have been certain individuals with a
natural tendency to fall into trances, especially when exposed to the
influences of rhythmic bouts of chanting, drumming or dancing,
"The
shaman beats his drum until it reaches the specific rhythm and tone
that sends him into a trancelike state of ecstasy. The rhythmic beats
affect the central nervous system producing a hypnotic condition." (Vallance, 2005, p. 49)
Sombrun, upon hearing a shamanic drum recording, was suddenly unable to control her movements; "A Dakhad shaman … recognized her as having unique shamanic gifts."
(Flor-Henry, Shapiro and Sombrun, 2017, p. 9) Such reactions are
actually altered states of consciousness, (ASC), temporary disruptions "… in the usually integrated function of consciousness, memory, identity, or perception of the environment." (American Psychiatric Association; 1994, p. 477) These can involve,
"…
derealization (the feeling of disconnection from the world around you,
e.g., feeling like reality is a dream or movie) and depersonalization
(the feeling of disconnection from oneself, e.g., feeling as though you
are separated from your body)." (Denis, 2018, p. 359)
Since our concept of "reality" depends upon the correct interpretation
of external sensory information, ASC can interfere with this process.
The duration, and intensity of ASC can vary from a few moments of
slight inattention, (e.g. day-dreaming, or Zombie pedestrians, so
engrossed with their mobile phone they walk into traffic), through to
lengthy, extremely deep levels of meditative trances.
Most cultures appear to have had, "… forms of institutionalized ASC that seemed to emerge from common, basic psychobiological capacities."
(Vaitl et al., 2005, p. 99) Lacking an understanding of such behaviour,
early humans believed these special individuals were "possessed" acting
as "mediums" to deliver messages from the spirits. Known to the Greeks
as "enthusiasm," ("enthuseiasmos"
— "possessed by a god's essence"), they had an important role in early
religious worship, and, in time, evolved into the shamans, seers,
augurs, prophets, witch-doctors, medicine men and priests of later
cultures.
While often hereditary roles, "… the shaman acquires his profession through inheritance, instruction, or an inner calling"
(Dioszegi and Eliade, 2018) their children may not have inherited their
parents "special abilities," and had to devise ways to mimic the "… shamanic journey" — the intentional induction of an altered state of consciousness." (Flor-Henry, Shapiro and Sombrun, 2017, p. 6) One method involved the use of hallucinogenic substances; as Sagan (1983) noted,
"Out-of-body
experiences are induced by dissociative anaesthetics such as the
ketamines (2-[ochlo rophenyl]-2-[methylamino] cyclohexanones.) The
illusion of flying is induced by atropine and other belladonna
alkaloids, and these molecules, obtained, for example, from mandrake or
jimson weed, have been used regularly by European witches and North
American curanderos ("healers") to experience, in the midst of
religious ecstasy, soaring and glorious flight." (pp. 355-356)
Blackmore (2018) related one such experience when, in 1970, after
smoking hash, she became convinced she was on the ceiling. Looking down,
"I
left the room, explored the roofs of Oxford and set off across the
world, flying, floating, and changing shape, until I tried to come
back. … "The whole experience, despite many bizarre irregularities,
seemed so utterly and vividly real that I became convinced that my soul
had left my body." (p. 32)
Hallucinogenic psilocybin and
psilocin mushrooms were widely used in North, Meso and South America,
(Wasson, 1972, p. 162), while in Northern Mexico and the Southwest
United States the Peyote cactus, (Lophophora williamsii),
from the Mexican Northern Plateau and the Rio Grande Valley, was a
common hallucinogen. Of its fifty different alkaloids Mescaline, which
produces a psychedelic condition similar to psilocybin and LSD, was its principal ingredient.
In Amazonia many Shamans smoked the local tobacco Mapacho, (Nicotiana rustica.), which had an 18% Nicotine level compared to the 1% content of Nicotiniana tobacum,
used in most commercial cigarettes. (Peruvian Institute of Shamanism)
Many Indians believed that the rising pipe-smoke carried their prayers
to the sky-spirits, while the Hopi believed the rising smoke would also
form rain-clouds.
In parts of America, Europe, Asia and the subarctic regions of the Northern Hemisphere, Amanita muscaria, (fly-agaric), a slightly poisonous mushroom containing Muscinol, a sedative and hallucinogenic agent, was widely used as an entheogen, (Blom, 2010, p. 19);
"Among
the Ob-Ugrians … The mushroom eater enters the realm of the little
people, talks with them, learns from them what he wishes to know – the
future, the outlook for a sick person, etc." (Wasson, 1972, p. 160)
Some Siberian Shamans fed these mushrooms to reindeer, allowing their intestines to break down the toxins, leaving, "… the hallucinogenic properties intact in the urine. The Shamans then drink the reindeer pee to 'fly high.'" (Vallance, 2005, p. 49) It was common knowledge in a number of Indian and Asian cultures that,
"… the urine of a
person who has consumed fly-agarics has a stronger narcotic and
intoxicating power than the fly-agaric itself and that this effect
persists for a long time after consumption." (Wasson, 1972, p. 249)
When ingesting such substances, although some of the hallucinogens enter the stomach, most are trapped in the kidneys, to be, "… later discharged with the urine."
(Graves, 1970, p. 1908) Scarce in many parts of Siberia, the mushroom
was worth the equivalent of three or four reindeer. (Wasson, 1972, p.
259) and many users carried a container to collect their urine for
later use, either by themselves or others. (Wasson, 1972, p. 237)
OBEs can also be produced by stress (Blackmore, 1984, p. 201; Wilde and
Murray, 2009, p. 3; Ananthaswamy, 2015, p. 200). One "stressful"
technique involved Amerindian sweat lodges used "… for purification of mind, body and spirit,"
(Berger and Rounds, 1998, p. 69). A sometimes fatal practice,
(Advertiser, 2007), participants sat in a sealed hut around a fire-pit
containing heated rocks. Water poured onto the rocks filled the room
with steam, then, overcome by the heat, some participants would fall
unconsciousness, often experiencing "visions."
Similarly, the Pythia, the
High Priestess of Apollo's Delphic Temple, sat in a fume-filled
subterranean chamber where, falling unconscious, she would deliver
garbled "messages" from Apollo, which were then translated" by the
priestly Osioi, the holy ones. (Farrell, 1907, p. 189)
Another "suffocation" type of OBE was described by Morrell (1924), a
particularly obstinate prisoner in San Quentin State Prison during the
1890's. Morrell spent five-years in solitary confinement, and endured,
"… a peculiar looking torture machine … known as "the Bloody Strait-jacket"
of San Quentin. (p. 308) A canvas strait-jacket, it constricted the
entire body, leaving only the head exposed, and, to maximise his
suffering, the guard would deliberately tighten as much as possible.
After fifteen minutes of his first session, (of 110 hours), he experienced severe pain and, "…a prickling sensation like that of millions of sharp needles jabbing through the tender flesh." (p. 313) His second session, of 126 hours, was however quite different. Although his initial experience was, "… like being buried alive — compressed in a sand pile." (p. 319), the pain and mental despair were gradually replaced by feelings of physical and mental freedom,
"There
was a period of brain enlargement, an expansion of time and space, a
receding of the walls of my cell and even of the outer walls of San
Quentin, and leaving my old pain racked body laced tightly in the
dungeon strait-jacket I bounded away, no longer held to earth but on a
quest through space and an eternity of time." (p. 319, N.B.
Author Jack London who heard of Morrell's experiences, later wrote a
fictional novel, The Star Rover, in which a straitjacketed prisoner
escapes the reality of his imprisonment during a series of fantastic
out-of-body adventures.)
On another occasion, while bound in two strait-jackets, Morrell found himself, "… out of my jackets, bending down looking at my body." (p. 332) Morrell disclosed that, during his many years in solitary, before ever being placed in the jacket, he had, "… developed an amazing power of visualization" (p. 49), having experimented with, "… self induced hypnosis, daring even to project my mind out and beyond the confines of San Quentin to distant lands and loved ones." (p. 49), and he described his episodes in the jacket as, "… periods of self-induced hypnosis"
(p. 332). Later, after a new prison warden took over, he was released
from solitary and then, no longer subjected to the jacket, his
"ability" to project himself outside the walls of the prison
disappeared, (p. 341).
Many of the ancient induction practices were dangerous and, over time,
some cultures developed safer means of producing ASC using breathing,
relaxation and meditation techniques,
"Most
breath manipulations are based primarily on Yoga and Zen practices, and
they include passive breath mindfulness and breathing. This requires
the trainee to focus attention on breathing and allows slow and shallow
respiration to emerge. In meditation techniques, breath manipulation
works with mantra chanting, counting, and maintaining a fixed gaze on
an external object or cue word." (Vaitl, et al. 2005, p. 104)
While more common in the East, similar techniques were used by some
Western Christian ascetics; Emmanuel Swedenborg, (1688-1772), the 18th
century philosopher, scientist, and mystic, as a youth, "… learned how to control his breath so that it seemed he was hardly breathing." (Lachman, 2007, p. 40)
Another form of OBE was the 16th – 17th century nocturnal "spirit-journeys" of the Benandanti,
(good-walkers) from the Italian village of Friuli. (Ginzburg, 1983)
Believing cauls created a "spiritual bridge" between the body and the
supernatural realm, the Benandanti, those born with part of their caul clinging to their heads, were believed to possess magical abilities to defeat evil forces.
The Catholic Church celebrated seasonal "Ember Days, (Old English, ymbren,
Metford, 1983,p. 92), special Wednesdays, Fridays and Saturdays, for
fasting and abstinence to thank God for nature's gifts. On the
Thursdays between, the Benandanti,
prayed, then retired to bed, where, entering a dream state, they "left"
their bodies. The women "attended" a great feast where they "learned"
who would die the following year, while the men, in the form of small
animals, "flew" on the backs of horses, goats or cats, to the village
fields where they used magic Fennel wands, to drive off all witches and
evil influences, ensuring bountiful harvests for the coming year.
§
"SCIENTIFIC" OBE'S
This segment deals specifically with "autoscopic" hallucinations, those
OBEs with a pathological origin. Autoscopic, from the Greek, autos =
"self" and skopeo, means, "I am looking at," or, "looking at myself." A
related phenomenon, Heautoscopy, (from the Greek, heautoû = "of
oneself" + scopos = "I am looking at") literally means, " … 'seeing
oneself' or 'seeing [some-thing] of oneself'." (Blom, 2010, p. 234)
"An autoscopic hallucination is the purely visual impression of seeing
one's own body or its upper parts as if being reflected in a mirror.
Usually, this mirror image of oneself is naturally coloured. It is
either motionless or it imitates gestures or facial expressions.
Autoscopic hallucinations are often of very short duration (frequently
in the range of seconds) and are occasionally preceded by elementary
visual hallucinations." (Brugger, Regard and Landis, 1997, p. 20)
Brugger, Regard and Landis (1997) described six types of autoscopic phenomena: -
1. Autoscopic Hallucinations:
Generally involving brightly coloured visual images of the face or
torso, usually in the left visual field (p. 20), or as "… an
apparitional figure" (Green, 1968, p.42). Often an "… exact mirror
image of oneself" (Brugger, et al., 2006, p. 666), or a, "… duplicate
body more or less resembling his physical body," (Green, 1970, p. 2093;
and 1968, p. 30);
2. Heautoscopy Proper:
Involving visual and somesthetic modalities; an "… intermediate form
between autoscopic hallucination and OBE" (Blanke and Arzy, 2005, p.
17), where the "double" imitates bodily movements. While the "image" is
poorly defined, it is nevertheless generally "perceived" as one's, "…
hallucinated doppelganger or double," (Blom, 2010, p. 235). In its
polyopic form the body image may appear divided into many parts,
(Brugger, et al., 2006, p. 669), or, as multiple figures of other
people;
3. Feelings of a Presence:
The experience of, "… the presence of someone next to you without
actually seeing a double," (Ananthaswamy, 2015, p. 198), the "thing"
often seeming to be on the threshold of one's visual field;
4. Out of Body Experience:
Visual and somesthetic modalities, involving feelings of bodily
separation, depersonalization, derealization, floating, or flying.
Experiences of "separating from" and "returning" to the body are often
accompanied by auditory hallucinations. During these experiences, "…
people seem to be awake and feel that their "self," or center of
awareness, is located outside of the physical body and somewhat
elevated. It is from this elevated extrapersonal location that the
subjects experience seeing their body and the world." (Blanke, Arzy and
Landis, 2008, p. 430);
5. Negative Heautoscopy:
Involving visual and somesthetic experiences, with feelings of
depersonalization, particularly difficulty in awareness of, or
recognizing one's bodily parts; "… defined as the failure to see one's
own body when looked at either directly or in a mirror." (Blanke, Arzy
and Landis, 2008, p. 442);
6. Inner Heautoscopy:
With visual and somesthetic experiences, especially feelings of
depersonalization, the body feels empty, "… the internal organs are
usually hallucinated in the extracorporal space." (B. R. & L.,
1997, p. 26) Occasionally, many different sized mirror images of one's
body can "appear" inside the body. (Blanke, Arzy and Landis, 2008, p.
441)
Occurring, "… in approximately 10% of the healthy population." (Blanke
and Arzy, 2005, p. 16), autoscopy is more generally associated with
pathological disorders such as epilepsy and migraine, (Blanke and Arzy,
2005; Lopez and Elziere, 2018), neurological disorders, brain lesions,
(Devinsky, et al., 1989), brain tumours, (Ananthaswamy, 2015, p. 196)),
posttraumatic brain damage, (Blanke and Arzy, 2005, p. 17), brain stem,
or spinal cord damage, (Aspell and Blanke, 2009, p. 76), vestibular
disorders, (Lopez and Elziere, 2018, p. 193), alcohol or drugs, (Wilde
and Murray, 2009, p. 3), stress, painful child-birth, (Ananthaswamy,
2015, p. 200), extreme fear, physical injury, and, "… during hypnagogic
and hypnopompic hallucinations." (Aspell and Blanke, 2009, p. 74)
Often producing extremely realistic hallucinations, one can perhaps
appreciate how disturbing these would have been in the superstitious,
pre-scientific past,
"Most of the early (pre-1880s) views on OBE's emphasized the idea that
something — the spirit or the soul — exteriorized from the body and
either stayed close to the physical body or visited distant locations
or dimensions." (Alvarado, 1989, p. 28)
Although studied for over a century, because they were, "… of short
duration, and happen only once or twice in a lifetime" (Aspell and
Blanke, 2009, p. 74), the origins of OBEs remained obscure. Their
mysterious character generated many bizarre theories, e.g. subtle
bodies, doppelgangers, human doubles, bi-location, wandering souls,
phantasmoagenetic apparitions, apparitions of living persons,
telepathically induced hallucinations, hallucinations of the self, or,
"illusions of exteriorization." (Alvarado 2016) It was not until 2002
that a serendipitous discovery by Swiss neurosurgeon Olaf Blanke (2004)
first provided important clues as to their actual origins.
While using subdural electrodes to electrically stimulate the
temporo-parietal junction (TPJ) of an epileptic patient, "out-of-body
type experiences" were noted. Low level stimulation produced sensations
of, "… sinking into the bed" or, "… falling from a height" while
increased amplitude "… led to an OBE," (Blanke, Ortigue, Landis and
Seeck, 2002, p; 269). At different levels of amplitude the patient
reported feelings, of lightness, limb-shortening, "… floating about two
metres above the bed, close to the ceiling." (Blanke et al., 2002, p.
269), or else, being able to see their physical body lying in bed.
Located on both sides of the brain, at the convergence of the temporal and parietal lobes,
"… the TPJ is a key neural locus for self-processing that is involved
in multisensory body-related information processing as well as in
processing of phenomenological and cognitive aspects of the self."
(Blanke and Arzy, 2005, p. 21)
Maintaining an awareness of the position, and movement, of body parts,
the TPJ also monitors the vestibular sensory system, and, given their
important role in the sensory perception of the body, Blanke and Arzy,
(2005), theorized, OBEs may be, "… related to a failure to integrate
multisensory information from one's own body at the temporo-parietal
junction." (p. 16) While some studies found OBEs originated in the Left
Frontal-Temporal, the Left Tempero-Parietal, or the Bilateral
Frontal-Temporal areas, 75%, occurred in patients with damage to the
right hemisphere (Heydrich, Lopez, Seeck, and Blanke, 2011, p. 583),
the hemisphere which deals with our sense of spatial orientation.
Stimulation of the TPJ also produced vestibular sensations (Lopez and
Elziere, 2018, p. 202) and evidence suggests many OBEs may take place
when problems within the right TPJ combine with disorders of the
vestibular sensory system. (VSS)
Involving the cochlea and vestibular labyrinth, (a series of inner ear
canals), the VSS contributes to our sense of balance and an awareness
of spatial orientation. Normally, incoming sensory information provides
awareness of our position, vis-à-vis the external world,
however, as Lopez and Elziere (2018) noted, "… erroneous signals from
the inner ear regarding body motion and orientation." (p. 202) can
produce distorted spatial perception, impressions of floating or
flying, or of limbs becoming shortened, or misplaced. (Blanke, Landis,
Spinelli and Seeck, 2004, p. 243)
Using the Cambridge Depersonalization Scale, which, amongst other
areas, contains 29 questions relating to, (a) Depersonalization, (where
thoughts and feelings seem unreal, or impersonal), and, (b)
Derealization, (a dissociative condition where the perception of the
external world, can appear to be vague and unreal), Lopez and Elziere,
(2018), tested 210 subjects with a history of dizziness and vertigo
against 210 "… age-and gender-matched controls," (p. 193), with no
vestibular disorders. While 14% of unhealthy subjects reported
experiencing OBEs, only 5% of controls reported similar experiences.
(pp. 193 and 197)
Subjects experiencing OBEs also tended to record higher scores for
depression and anxiety, (p. 200), disorders commonly associated with
vestibular disorders.(p. 203) Lopez and Elziere, (2018), also
identified "… depersonalization-derealization, depression and anxiety
as the main predictors of OBE in patients with dizziness," (p. 193).
Dizziness appears to be a common component of OBEs, (Lopez and Elziere,
2018, p. 202), and, while Muldoon and Carrington (1929), also
identified dizziness as a symptom of OBEs, they attributed it to
"occult sources," claiming it was,
"… a condition of looseness of the astral body. …dizziness indicates
that the astral body is not bound tightly to the physical. When dizzy,
we stagger because the astral body is loose and half inclined to
withdraw from the physical." (pp. 27-28)
Although there is now a greater insight into the actual causes of
autoscopic OBEs, precisely how, and why, they occur, still remains
unknown. Nevertheless, the fact that they have physiological origins
clearly indicates they are not "occult" phenomena; rather, as Lopez and
Elziere, (2018), suggest,
"OBEs result from a multisensory disintegration in personal space
(i.e., a failure to integrate visual body-related information and
somatosensory information) and a disintegration between personal and
extrapersonal space (i.e., a failure to integrate vestibular and visual
information)." (p. 202)
§
OCCULT OBE's
"It is a dimension as vast as space and as timeless as infinity. … This
is the dimension of imagination. It is an area which we call The
Twilight Zone."
Occult OBEs are,
(a) non-pathological in origin;
(b) do not normally involve apparitional figures;
(c) can be influenced by a person's beliefs; and,
(d) while, generally involuntarily, can also be produced deliberately.
Essential for Occult OBEs are a belief in the Astral Plane, the Astral Body, and Astral Travel.
ASTRAL PLANE:
The "astral plane;" ("astral" = "of the stars"), is claimed to exist
beyond all normal physical and spiritual dimensions, and outside time
and space, yet its contents, and inhabitants, "… are real in exactly
the same way as our bodies, our furniture, our houses or monuments are
real." (Leadbeater, 1895, p. 2) Invisible to humans it comprises "… a
different order of matter" (Besant, 1912, p. 35), a substance known as
Quintessence, ("fifth element"). Also known as "ether," this is the
primordial "mother-substance" from which the entire cosmos was created.
Located in the superlunary region, (beyond the Moon), it is twice as
distant as the Sun; which, according to the Pañcavimśa Brāhmaa
(The Brāhmaņa of Twenty-five Chapters, 25.10, is about the distance one
could travel on horseback in 44 days; (some 2,464 km. Kak, 1998. p.
98). Others, like Ptolemy however, placed the Sun at, "… 600 earth
diameters distant from the earth" (Kak, 1998, p. 93) a distance of some
15,208,300 km.
ASTRAL BODY:
Occultists believe that, in addition to their corporeal body, humans
possess a spiritual element, an, "… airy, filmy double of the body."
(Addison, 1933, p. 3), an "… exact counterpart of the perfect physical
body of the person." (Muldoon and Carrington, 1929, p. 2) A "proven
reality," it is, "composed" of, "… the seven sub-states of astral
matter." (Besant, 1912, p. 37), and so, "… not subject to most of the
physical laws of space and time." (Tart, 1974, p. 368)
Although an integral part of the human body it nevertheless remains
completely independent. Variously referred to as, "spirit," (pneuma),
"spiritual body," (soma pneumatikon, Mead, 1919, p. 47), "soul," Linga
Sharîra, (Hindu, "vital form," Besant, 1912, p. 6), or "etheric
double" (because it is, "… made of ether, ''double" because an exact
duplicate of the gross body," Besant, 1912, p. 6). In the 19th century
Theosophists, Rosicrucians, and others, adopted the term, "astral body"
for this ineffable feature.
A Vitalistic concept, the belief that all living creatures "… possess a
non-physical inner force or energy that gives them the property of
life." (Carroll, 2003, p. 402), and known as Prana, ("pra" = constant +
"an" = movement), in Hinduism, this cosmic "life-force," or, "vital
principle," was the, "… source of life, breath and vitality," (What is
Hinduism, 2007, p. 173). Muldoon and Carrington (1929) claimed this
energy, (which entered the body via an "astral cable," p. 75), was
"condensed" by the astral body, (pranamaya kosa), (p. 31).
For many ancients the Sun was the source of this vital energy. The
Egyptians, who believed stone statues were actually "alive," aligned
their temples so the rays of the rising Sun would fall on the statues,
enabling this life-force, (ka), to sustain them. (Reidy, 2010, p. 204)
Hinduism also claimed Prana came from the sun, and the Theosophists,
who regarded Hinduism as a major source of Eastern esoteric wisdom,
adopted this belief,
"… (a) the Sun is the store-house of Vital Force, which is the Noumenon
of Electricity; and (b) that it is from its mysterious,
never-to-be-fathomed depths, that issue those life currents which
thrill through Space, as through the organisms of every living thing on
Earth." (Blavatsky, 1888, volume I, p. 531)
ASTRAL TRAVEL:
Although the physical body was unable to do so, the astral body could
ascend to the astral plane, where it could exist autonomously, with
complete "conscious awareness." Also known as, "astral projection," or,
"self-projection," (Carrington, 1916, p. 248), this process was
iinitiated by, "… the subconscious Will." (M. & C., 1929, p. 18),
"… the will which is active in sleep," (Carrington, 1916, p. 250), and
was sustained by the power of thought, (M. & C., 1929, pp. 214-216).
The concept of astral travel is extremely important to occultists, since they believe,
"If there is something within the human body which can leave it … while
the body is still living, why couldn't this same something leave the
body when it dies and continue to live?" (Smith, 1968, p. 11)
While ascending to the astral regions, the astral body always remains
"tethered," to the physical body by an, "… elastic-like cable," (M
& C, 1929, p. 7). Although some claimed it had, "… numerous points
of attachment," (Mead, 1919, p. 82), Mead located its bodily
connection, "… between the shoulder-blades," (p. 81). Conversely,
Muldoon and Carrington, (1929), claimed it was attached,
"… to the medulla oblongata region of the astral counterpart,
while the other end centred between the eyes of the physical
counterpart." (p. 7)
With "… the diameter of a silver dollar" (44.4 mm. 1¾ inches, M.
& C., 1929, p. 29) where it emerged from the body, it thinned as it
stretched out. At 3.04 m. (10 feet), it was 19 mm. (¾ inch)
thick, reaching its minimum, that, "… of an ordinary sewing thread" (M.
& C., 1929, p. 30), after 4.5 m. (15 feet). Composed of the same
material as the astral body, this cord conducted "vital currents" and,
most importantly, "Should this cord be severed, death instantly
results." (M. & C., 1929, xvi)
Interestingly, of the OBEs subjects investigated by Green (1968),"The
great majority of subjects felt unconnected." (p. 100). Only 3.5% of
subjects mentioned any sense of a "physical connection;" As one subject
commented, "I seemed to be floating along above myself rather like a
balloon on a string, but I could not see how I was attached." (Green,
1968, p. 102)
So, what exactly were these Occult OBEs described by these authors?
Were they genuine metaphysical experiences, or, is there a more mundane
explanation?
Unfortunately, the authors' descriptions are often vague and ambiguous,
making it difficult to identify the exact induction processes they
used, or the actual character of their OBEs. In fact, it appears the
authors themselves did not fully understand the exact nature of their
experiences. In what Fox (1920b) described as their, "… futile attempts
to translate the untranslatable," (p. 251), they often circumvented the
issue. Muldoon and Carrington, (1929) resorted to creative neologisms,
e.g. astral catalepsy, discoincidence, dynamatization of projection,
exteriorization of motivity, hyperdynamizing, immotive unconsciousness,
while Leadbeater (1895), used obscure Sanskrit terms such as Chela in
the Mâyâvirûpa, Kâmarûpa, sushuptic,
Kârana Sharîra, Linga Sharîra,
Ñin-mâ-pa, and, rûpa divisions of the devachanic
plane. Nevertheless, despite the lack of detail, it appears their OBEs
were actually ASC, which, as mentioned earlier, involve temporary
disruptions in, "… consciousness, memory, identity, or perception of
the environment." (American Psychiatric Association; 1994, p. 477)
One area affected by ASC is the perception of time; as Fox (1962)
commented, "… time is a most perplexing thing in the Dream World;" (p.
38). Describing his first complex "projection dream," which although it
seemed to be quite lengthy, he realized it actually, "… lasted only a
few moments." (p. 33).
Muldoon and Carrington (1929) implied some form of dissociation was
necessary for astral projection; "It may take place when the subject is
in practically any state of unconsciousness." (p. 14). Significantly
Wilde and Murray, (2009), also noted, "A significant positive
relationship between OBEs and dissociation," (p. 6).
Overall, the various OBEs described by these authors appear to have involved either,
a) Day-Dreaming;
b) Sleep, Dreaming, Lucid Dreams, False Awakenings,
Hypnagogic and Hypnopompic Experiences (HHE), Sleep Paralysis; or
c) Self-hypnosis.
(a) DAY-DREAMING:
A, "… stable cognitive characteristic," (McVay, Kane and Kwapil, 2009,
p. 862), involving low levels of dissociation, day-dreaming, or
"mind-wandering" is an, "… ubiquitous phenomenon" (Stawarczyk, et al,
2012, p. 1). Experienced by some 96% of individuals each day. (Mar,
Mason and Livack, 2012, p. 401), it occupies some, "… 30–50% of our
daily thinking time." (Stawarczyk, et al, 2012, p. 1) Despite
this, day-dreaming is never specifically mentioned by the various
authors as features of their Occult OBEs.
(b) SLEEP, DREAMING, LUCID DREAMS, FALSE AWAKENING, SLEEP PARALYSIS:
The authors frequently refer to sleep, and dreams, as features of their
experiences; Carrington (1916), suggested the best time to produce an
OBE was, "… between 11 p.m. and 3 a.m. … when natural sleep is most
likely to supervene." (p. 252). Muldoon's first experience of
"conscious astral projection," occurred after he "… dozed off … and
slept for several hours." (M. & C, 1929, p. 5) Although aware he
was in his bed, he was, "… bewildered as to my exact location." (p. 6),
and observed, "… one can be conscious, yet unable to move. This
condition I have called "astral catalepsy," (p. 6). Fox (1962), also
described how, in his youth, he experienced many dreams where he
explored, "… what appeared to be a marvelous celestial world," (p. 29).
It was one such dream which generated his initial interests in, "…
dream-consciousness, astral travelling, and self-induced trance,"
(1920a, p. 190), leading to his identification of two specific
"dreaming" conditions, "Dreams of Knowledge," and a "Trance condition."
(1920a, p. 193)
Lucid Dreams:
Blackmore (1991), suggested a relationship existed between lucid
dreaming and OBEs; for many they are, " … practically
indistinguishable. If you dream of leaving your body, the experience is
much the same." (p. 368)
Individuals can be aware they are actually dreaming during lucid dreams
and often experience, "… increased insight, control, access to waking
memories, dissociation from one's own body, logical thought, and
positive emotion," (Denis, 2018, p. 358), thus Swedenborg, who trained
himself to produce Hypnagogic states, could "travel, " … to heaven,
hell and other planets." (Lachman, 2002, p. 43), all significant
features of his beliefs. Similarly, what Fox (1962) called "Dreams of
Knowledge," may have actually been lucid dreams; for he could control
their duration, and awaken "… if danger threatened." (1962, p. 34).
False Awakenings:
These are extremely realistic hallucinations where, although fast
asleep, one is convinced they are actually wide-awake; essentially one
is, "… dreaming they have woken up." (Parker and Blackmore, 2002, p. 57)
Fox also seems to have experienced False Awakenings and Sleep
Paralysis; he reported how sometimes, in his "Dreams of Knowledge," or
other "unremembered dreams," he would fall into a trance, and, although
certain he was awake, he could detect certain inconsistencies which
alerted him to the fact he, " …was really dreaming." (Fox, 1962, p. 34)
False Awakenings often occur on "the borders of sleep" (Waters et al.,
2016, p. 1098), during hypnagogic or hypnopompic stages. Significantly,
both examples of Muldoon's "conscious astral projection" occurred
during, "… (1) the hypnagogic* state, emerging from sleep, and (2) the
hypnagogic* state when going to sleep." (M. & C.,1929, p. 164; *
NB: While the terms Hypnagogic and Hypnopompic are now used, in the
past "hypnagogic" referred to the conditions encountered when awakening
and going to sleep). Muldoon also claimed, "… most projections will be
more successful — consciously — if they begin in the hypnagogic state,
when coming out of sleep." (M. & C., 1929, p. 23)
Sleep Paralysis:
Despite Muldoon and Carrington (1929) claiming, "It is catalepsy of the
astral body which produces physical catalepsy." (p. 10), sleep
paralysis is actually a brief parasomnian condition, involving abnormal
movements, behaviors, emotions, perceptions, and, "… vivid, waking
dreams, (i.e. hallucinations)." (Sharpless, 2016, p. 1761) Known as
Hypnagogic and Hypnopompic Experiences (HHE), these generally occur,
"… immediately prior to falling asleep or upon waking. … individuals
are conscious of their surroundings and able to open their eyes, but
unable to move. An acute sense of fear and various hypnagogic and
hypnopompic experiences often accompany sleep paralysis." (Cheyne,
Newby-Clark and Rueffer, 2000, p. 313)
Fox (1920a), commented, "In this condition one is liable to any imaginable hallucination of sight or sound;" (p. 194), such as,
"… visions, voices, weird insights and unusual sensations greet us as
we drift out of consciousness. Faces may appear, threatening or
comical. A landscape may open up, with distant mountains and wide,
expansive vistas. Geometric forms, jewels, diamonds and intricate
patterns may dance before our mind's eye, not unlike those seen under
the influence of certain psychoactive substances. … We may feel we are
floating, or that our body has grown to enormous proportions."
(Lachman, 2002, p. 42)
Bizarre, and often disturbing, "… (up to 90%) of sleep paralysis
episodes are associated with fear." (Denis, 2018, p. 356) In the past
many such "experiences" were frequently "… cited as sources of accounts
of supernatural nocturnal assaults..." (Cheyne, Rueffer and
Newby-Clark, 1999, p. 319), since they often involved "… nocturnal
incubus/succubus assaults, spirit possessions, old hag attacks, ghostly
visitations, and alien abductions." (Cheyne, Rueffer and Newby-Clark,
1999, p. 320) Some, referred to as "ghost rapes," were attributed to
attempts by, Incubi or Succubae, sexual demons, using erotic
temptations to seduce good Christians away from their faith.
Cheyne, Rueffer and Newby-Clark. (1999, p. 319) identified three types of HHE:
1. Intruder: Auditory and visual hallucinations,
involving "feelings" of a "presence" of someone, or something,
"malevolent," in one's room;
2. Incubus: Generally involving feelings of pressure
on the chest, breathing difficulties, chocking, suffocation and pain.
Reported since ancient times, they were often attributed to attacks by
malicious supernatural creatures, e.g. incubi, succubi, "Old Hag," or,
a Mare, which sat astride their victim's chest, restricting their
breathing. The term "nightmare" is derived from, "… the Anglo-Saxon
neaht or nicht [night] and mara [incubus or succubus]." (Powell, 1997,
p. 588);
3. Unusual Bodily Experiences: These can involve
feelings of "… floating, "out-of-body" and flying sensations," (C. R.
& NB. 1999, p. 320); although generally associated with feelings of
fear, some subjects reported feelings of "bliss." (C. R. & NB.
1999, p. 319).
It is possible some Occult OBEs involved HHE; Muldoon's first,
"conscious astral projection," (M. & C., 1929, p. 5), occurred
after he dozed off and slept for several hours, then, as he awoke, he
was unable to go back to sleep or to fully awaken, " … glued down,
stuck fast, in an immovable position … conscious, yet unable to move."
(p. 6). Fox (1962), also reported waking from sleep and finding himself
in a semi-rigid, almost cataleptic condition;
"I was awake now — yes, but completely paralyzed! I could not open my
eyes, I could not speak. I could not move a muscle. I had a slight
sense of daylight shining through my eyelids', and I could distinctly
hear the clock, ticking and my grandfather moving about in the
adjoining room." (Fox, 1962, p. 39)
(c) SELF-HYPNOSIS:
Many ancient forms of communication with spirits involved self-hypnotic
techniques to produce a trancelike condition. It was believed this
would transport individuals to "heavenly" realms to meet and
communicate with, supernatural beings. In reality, hypnosis is a
psychophysiological process, which, enables one to dissociate, to
various degrees, from a sensory awareness of the external environment.
Since it is a form of "… guided daydreaming … a natural altered state
of consciousness …" (Yapko, 1990, p. 9), the individual's
"experiences," however bizarre, are entirely the creation of their own
imagination.
Hypnosis involves both the Limbic System, (which governs, "… various
emotions and feelings" Mosby, 1986, p. 652), and the Ascending
Reticular Activating Systems, (ARAS), which is involved with various
aspects of sleep, waking, consciousness, alertness, vigilance, the
integration of sensory information, and awareness. While maintaining
levels of arousal this area can also inhibit, "… appreciation of a
considerable degree of reality." (West, 1960, p. 673)
Two significant aspects of self-hypnosis are Absorption, ("… the
ability to concentrate without distraction," Wilde and Murray, 2009, p.
5), and Suggestibility, ("… the uncritical acceptance of an idea."
Kroger, 1977, p. 7)
Absorption: By focussing on a particular thought or image one can
exclude a great deal of external stimuli which concentrates the primary
non-autonomic brain activity within the limbic and ARAS systems. If
maintained, this can produce feelings of depersonalization; (" … a key
component of trance states.' Kaplan, 2004, p. 4), and, as one becomes
increasingly "disconnected" from the physical self, one's sense of
reality becomes increasingly more uncertain and surreal, while,
… the waking brain under conditions of reduced sensory input
generates a considerable flow of daydreams, fantasies, imagery, and
"pseudosomatic delusions" (Antrobus, Singer and Greenberg, 1966, p.
399).
Suggestibility: Unlike gullibility, suggestibility is the tendency to
be influenced by certain verbal, or non-verbal "suggestions," (e.g.
echophenomena, the automatic imitation of another's actions; when
someone yawns, others tend to yawn involuntarily). While the degree of
suggestibility varies between individuals, when given via hypnosis,
suggestions are particularly effective, especially during, "… extended
periods of sensory isolation," (Yapko, 1990, p. 117). Hypnosis enables
suggestions to "bypass" the analytical processing of the conscious mind
and go "direct" to the subconscious, increasing the probability that
one will accept even the most implausible scenarios as "authentic."
Hypnotic trances share many characteristics of OBEs; indeed, hypnosis
was once, "… the original and for long the most popular technique for
experimentally inducing an OBE." (Irwin, 1989, p. 2) Significantly,
some of the techniques described by Carrington (1916) and Fox (1920a),
to produce Occult OBEs are very similar to a number of self-hypnotic
techniques, e.g.
"To induce the trance I would lie down, with muscles relaxed, turning
my consciousness inward upon the pineal door and excluding all other
thoughts; the body was passive, but the mind positive in its
concentration upon this inner point. My eyelids were closed; but I
believe the eyes were rolled upwards and slightly squinting…." (Fox,
1920a, p. 196)
"One of the simplest is to repeat to oneself many times just before
dropping off to sleep, 'I have will — I have energy!'" (Carrington,
1916, p. 250)
Excluding external stimuli, (Irwin 1989, p. 1), repeated suggestions,
turning the consciousness inward, positive concentration (Hammond,
1990, pp. 11-12), rolling the eyes upward, (Spiegel, 1972), and
muscular relaxation, (Jacobson, 1938), are all effective self-hypnotic
techniques. Green (1968) noted the importance of relaxation in
"esomatic experiences," (her term for OBEs),
"More than one subject spontaneously puts forward the hypothesis
that muscular relaxation was a necessary condition of his esomatic
experience. Some subjects even suggest that relaxation was a cause of
their experience… A number of occurrences of the esomatic state have
resulted from the practice of relaxation exercises, sometimes in
conjunction with meditation practices." (Green, 1968, p. 56)
§
Although many oculists claim that Occult OBEs are authentic
transcendental experiences, evidence for the existence of the astral
plane, the astral body and astral travel, the theories which underpin
the concept of Occult OBEs is somewhat tenuous. Claims for these
concepts are primarily anecdotal, uncertain and ambiguous; even Muldoon
and Carrington (1929) admitted, "… many stories concerning the astral
world are contradictory." (p. 216)
Possibly reflecting the ancient belief that, "The heavens were peopled
by malicious powers" (Taylor, 1931, p. 61), we find that some, like
Powell (1927), populated the astral realm with elemental essences,
vampires, werewolves, astral corpses, and Black Magicians, (p. 168).
Contradicting such claims Fox (1920b), reported, "… a total absence of
elementals or other terrifying beings." (p. 255) Fox also mentioned the
existence of horrible astral slums (1920a, p. 193), and "… electric
trams on the astral plane" (1920b, p. 252), objects never mentioned by
other authors.
Fox (1920a), admitted the astral plane was a, "Realm of Illusion," (p.
193), and, given the significantly different observations by the
various authors, one must ask if it is possible that at least some, or
all, of the Occult OBEs imagery, may simply be subjective
confabulations?
Personal beliefs can significantly influence one's experiences during
ASC and dreams. As Kroger (1977) indicated, during hypnosis, "… it is
the subject who initiates the acts in response to an appropriate
expectant attitude." (p. 7). Gardiner (1993) mentioned a number of
Christian mystics whose visions, like those of Swedenborg, were
profoundly influenced by their personal beliefs. Many experienced
"penance producing visions," (p. xxv); where, tormented by feelings of
guilt, and fear of eternal damnation, they conjured up the most
incredible visions of "… heaven, hell and purgatory." (p. xvi), images
reflecting their Christian beliefs.
During ASC individuals tend to experience exactly what they expect to
see, hear and feel; thus, Shamans "communicated" with totemic
sky-spirits, Benandanti attended magical feasts, attacked witches with
fennel wands, while occultists "travel" to an alternative astral realm.
While such experiences may have the appearance of reality, as Sagan
(1983) noted, "… the fact that a sensation is reported does not mean
that it occurred as claimed." (p. 56)
Blackmore (2015) noted that, "… many ideas that seemed quite plausible
50 or 100 years ago no longer seem so attractive." (p. 394); and
ongoing scientific and technological advances has increasingly revealed
that many claims supporting Occult OBE beliefs are nothing more that
outmoded religious, superstitious and pseudo-scientific beliefs. Some
of these claims are that,
• Atoms are both male and female, "… electrons are
astral atoms. … a chemical atom of hydrogen contains 882 astral atoms."
(Powell, 1927, p. 5);
• Madness is caused by the separation of the
"physical and etheric" bodies. (Footnote by Carrington, M. & C.
1929, p. 52);
• Yogis and mediums could levitate, being lifted up
by "spirit hands," (Leadbeater, 1895, p. 96). Leadbeater and Powell,
(1927), both claimed that "Atlantis," and ancient India, had airships
which flew by reversing the forces of gravity; and, as Powell added, "…
it is not improbable that a similar method was employed in constructing
the Pyramids and Stonehenge." (p. 161)
Finally, to be classified as "legitimate" metaphysical events, Occult
OBEs need to be able to demonstrate characteristics which prove, beyond
doubt, they are not simply autoscopic or hallucinatory experiences.
Smith (1968), suggested subjects should be able to return from their
OBEs, "… with information which you would not have any normal way of
knowing." (p. 10) In her study of 251 subjects, Green, (1968, p. 13),
found only two examples which might possibly meet these requirements;
however, both reports were anecdotal, and lacked the verification
required in a proper scientific study.
In conclusion, as Sagan (1983), observed, "To the best of my knowledge,
no demonstration of astral projection has ever been reported under such
controlled circumstances with skeptics in attendance." (p. 56)
We will now leave it to the reader to decide upon the veracity of Occult OBEs!