Babylonian Beginnings
The origin of astrology can be traced back to 2000 BC when Babylonian
priests began to consult the heavens in an attempt to determine the
fate of kings and empires. The underlying assumption behind their
reasoning was that each planet was the abode of a god who influenced
earthly affairs:
"Apart from the
sun and the moon, which were looked upon as planets, the Babylonians
also knew Jupiter, Mercury, Mars, Saturn, and Venus, which they called
bibbu "wild goats" in contradistinction to the fixed stars which were
thought to be "tarne." These five bibbu, small though they looked, were
said to have a tremendous influence on human fate. All were seats of
different gods, and each had a characteristic effect on the Earth." (R.
Lewinsohn: Prophets and Prediction, page 59.)
The Babylonians believed
that the Universe was controlled by a hierarchy of supernatural beings
and that mankind was the servant of these gods who ruled the
terrestrial world Marduk (Jupiter) was the creator and victor over the
forces of chaos, and king of the gods; Sin (the Moon) influenced growth
through its changing phases; Samas (the Sun) was the carrier of life
and light; Nebo (Mercury) was the god of wisdom who recorded the deeds
of men; Adar (Saturn) was the patron of hunting; Nergal (Mars) was the
god of the dead, pestilence and war, and Ishtar (Venus) was the goddess
of motherhood.
The Babylonians came to believe that the will of their gods could be
divined by the position of the planets as they moved across the zodiac
which is also of Babylonian origin:
"Besides the
planets, the signs of the zodiac also are offsprings of Chaldean
[Babylonian] astrology, and six of its original figures still exist to
this day. They are the Bull, the Twins, the Lion, the Balance, the
Scorpion and the Fishes. Although little is known of their symbolism,
it may be surmised that these figures originally were closely connected
with earthly affairs." (K. Seligmann: The History of Magic and the
Occult, page 6.)
Astrology became popular in ancient Greece when Berosus, a Babylonian
astrologer, founded a school devoted to the art on the island of Cos in
250 BC. The Greeks proceeded to develop the mundane astrology of the
Babylonians into the genethliacal version that deals with the destiny
of ordinary people, rather than confining itself to the fate of kings
and empires.
In addition, astrology also acquired the Greek concept of the universe
as expounded in Claudius Ptolemaeus' (c. 100-170 AD) Almagest the
spherical Earth was thought to be the centre of the cosmos, was
surrounded by a complex system of concentric crystalline spheres to
which the celestial bodies were attached and by which they were moved.
The order of the celestial bodies, from the earth outwards, was as
follows: the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn,
and beyond the sphere of Saturn was the sphere of the fixed stars.
From Greece, astrology entered Roman civilisation and spread throughout
the Empire, and although it was condemned on theological grounds by the
Church in the early part of its history, the art eventually became
respectable and was incorporated into the world picture of western
civilisation the great chain of being in which all things were part of
an interconnected realm where:
"...the stars
which, through obeying God's changeless order, are responsible for the
vagaries of fortune in the realms below the moon. The planets were in
fact the commuting agents of eternity to mutability: they had the
function of the million pieces of coloured glass which in Shelley's
dome stain the white radiance of eternity, when the glass itself does
not change but causes change in something else." (E.W.M. Tillyard: The
Elizabethan World Picture, page 60.)
Despite its widespread
acceptance, even among learned men, there were a small number of people
sceptical of astrology.
One such person was the Italian humanist Pico della Mirandola (1463 -
94) who:
"...prepared a
scathing attack on astrology. He cited examples from his own
experience, where astrologers predicted a good life, while one disaster
after another had struck his family. He even went so far as to check
the weather against astrological predictions and found that out of one
hundred thirty days, the predictions were correct for no more than six.
This created quite a sensation, since nobody had cared or bothered to
carry out any tests before." (G.E. Tauber: Man's View of the Universe,
page 70.)
The high regard in which
astrology was held came to an end when advances were made in the
science of astronomy. This was brought about by the work of men such as
Copernicus and Galileo who correctly deduced that the planets revolved
about the Sun. Thus, one of the central assumptions upon which
astrology was founded the Earth centred universe was shown to be
false.
Theory
After having given a very brief outline of the origin and history of
astrology, it should be obvious that the foundations of the art are
based on superstition the idea that the planets are the abode of gods
who influence earthly affairs.
Contemporary astrologers have abandoned the idea of planetary gods, and
replaced them with a theory of positive and negative vibrations that,
according to them, affect human destiny.
However, they still believe that the moment of birth is of prime
importance in determining the fate and personality of individuals:
"During any
period of 24 hours there are 360 possible ascendants, each with its
related midheaven. A different (succeeding) degree of the ecliptic (and
therefore the zodiac) "rises" above the horizon every four minutes. So
if Smith was born five minutes after Jones (even if they were both born
in the same place), Smith will have a different degree of the zodiac
for his ascendant. And if Jones' ascendant was, say, 300 Scorpio, Smith
will also have a different ascendant sign 10 Sagittarius." (L.
MacNeice: Astrology, page 247.)
The assumption that the moment of birth is a crucial factor in
determining personality appears to be questionable at best, for if
there are such things as celestial influences, then the foetus would be
continually subjected to them throughout the term of its development.
Therefore, the moment of conception should be the primary factor that
astrologers base their predictions upon.
Moreover, if astrologers are correct in assuming that the moment of
birth determines personality, then it should follow that twins, whether
identical (where two embryos arise from the division of a single
fertilised egg) or fraternal (where two different eggs are fertilised),
should have different personalities because the second twin can be born
within a few minutes or up to 15 minutes of the first:
"The second
baby should be born within 15 minutes after the first baby. (Doctors in
hospitals frequently deliver the second baby within a few minutes.)"
(M.F. Myles: Textbook For Midwives, 8th edition, page 324.)
Unfortunately for astrologers, it is our genes, rather than the time of
birth that determines personality:
"Out of some 20
studies [of twins], there is not one in which the correlations for
identical twins have not been larger, and usually much larger, than
those for fraternal twins. This applies not only to the major
personality variables, such as extroversion, introversion and
neuroticism stability, but to a large number of other measurable
traits as well… When proper personality tests are used, whether
questionnaires or objective experimental testing procedures, the
results, always support the proposition that heredity plays a most
important part in producing differences in personality." (H. & M.
Eysenck: Mindwatching, page 108.)
As we can see, identical
twins even if born 15 minutes apart, and according to astrologers under
different celestial influences, will still have personalities that are
remarkably similar. This is in direct contrast to fraternal twins who,
even if born within a few minutes of each other, will have
personalities that are dissimilar.
Is there any evidence that celestial bodies emit vibrations that might
effect human destiny? It is all very well for astrologers to claim that
they do, however where is the proof? We have explored the Moon, sent
space probes to other planets in the solar system, and have discovered
that these worlds are composed of the same kind of matter as found on
Earth. In order for the planets to emit some kind of paranormal
radiation, they would need to be composed of paranormal matter because
matter and energy are interdependent. To date no paranormal matter has
been discovered, and therefore there is no evidence that these
vibrations exist outside the imagination of astrologers.
The zodiac too, poses a number of problems, for the constellations are
nothing more than arbitrary patterns formed by human imagination.
Moreover, there are currently 88 recognised constellations and if they
possess some mystical quality, why is it that astrologers take into
account only 12 of them?
Another problem is that the signs of the zodiac have, in the last two
thousand years, been displaced thirty degrees westward due to the
precession of the Earth's axis, a cyclic phenomena that occurs over a
period of approximately 26,000 years. Therefore, a person born on 21
March 130 AD would have entered the world under the constellation of
Aries. However, a person born on the same date today would enter the
world under the constellation of Pisces. Astrologers have not taken
this phenomenon into account if you consult a contemporary book on
astrology you will find that the date for the star sign Aries is still
being given as March 21 - April 19, and Pisces as February 19 - March
20. One can only conclude that astrology is woefully out of date.
Astrologers have tried to overcome this problem by claiming that each
constellation was 'born' in its respective house, and therefore their
current positions are irrelevant. However, if a constellation can be
born, presumably in some mystical manner, so that its influences are
fixed, then it seems reasonable to assume that this event would have
occurred 4.6 billion years ago when the Earth and other planets in our
solar system began to form out of a swirling cloud of dust and gas.
Unfortunately for astrologers their solution is not viable. This is
because no constellation is immutable – the unequal rates of movement
among the stars that comprise them causes all constellations to change
shape over time, and 4.6 billion years ago the constellations of the
zodiac, as we know them, did not exist. If a constellation exerts
paranormal influences due to the arrangement of its stars, then it
seems reasonable to assume that these influences change as the
constellations alter shape. Moreover, the position of the Earth and the
other planets in the zodiac changes because our solar system is moving
in relation to the constellations as the Sun orbits the centre of our
galaxy (in the Sun's case once every 250 million years.)
Needless to say, astrologers have not taken into account all these
changes in the position of the celestial bodies their art is based on
the ancient and discredited idea of a largely static cosmos.
Predictions
Despite the fact that there is no rational foundation to astrology,
many people are impressed by astrological predictions, and then claim
that this alleged accuracy can only be accounted for by postulating the
existence of paranormal forces. Is this assumption justifiable?
Consider the following personality reading:
"You have a
very independent streak and like to do things in a way that is just
right for you.1 It may be that you have evolved a unique lifestyle that
you guard jealously.2 You will express your originality in a variety of
ways.3 Perhaps you like to look a little different, or maybe your job
is an unusual one.4 Your ... creativity could be spiced with
originality and that will make inner fulfilment even more likely for
you.5
It's important that
you develop flexibility6... Always aim to complete projects, or you
will feel dissatisfied and restless7... You may tend to distance
yourself from prospective partners, feeling that you are not yet ready
for total commitment.8 However...once a partner has paved the way for
you, you are capable of very faithful love and a rewarding sex life.9"
(J. & D. Parker: Sun and Moon Signs, page 252.)
Can you identify the zodiac sign that this reading corresponds to? My
guess is that you can't, and I suspect that neither could an astrologer
unless he or she looks at the answer at the end of this article. Give a
copy of this reading to a person you know believes in astrology, tell
them that the reading is for their star sign, and ask them to rate its
accuracy on a scale from 1 to 10. I suspect that most people will give
it a rating higher than five. Why?
The answer is simple the reading is full of generalities (as are most
astrological predictions) that could apply to almost anyone. Each
sentence in the above quote has been numbered in superscript, and I
shall now analyse the reading in order to highlight its generic nature.
1. Most people
like to think that they are independent, and tend to do things in a
manner that they find best for them. Very few people would disagree
with this statement.
2. Given the number of
people leading alternative or new age lifestyles, their propensity to
believe in the occult, and therefore read books on subjects such as
astrology or consult astrologers, this statement stands a reasonable
chance of being true. However, many other people may have some aspect
of their lifestyle that they consider unique in some way, and therefore
agree with this statement. Moreover, as most people value their way of
life they will attempt to protect their lifestyle.
3. This statement is true
of everyone as no two humans are exactly alike.
4. Another statement that
could apply to most people – nearly everyone wishes to appear
different, and express this tendency by the way they dress and adorn
themselves. Note that the statement regarding employment is qualified
as are other statements in the reading. Qualifications always appear
when there is a chance that the astrologer's prediction will be wrong.
5. Most people would like
to think that they are creative and original to some degree, and will
find such activity fulfilling. Moreover, most people would not disagree
with this statement because it is flattering to their self image.
6. This statement applies
to everyone, and can be considered a general truism.
7. Once again, a general
truism – not many people like to leave things half done.
8. Many people may feel
hesitant about total commitment, especially in the early stages of a
relationship. This is another statement that could apply to anyone,
irrespective of their star sign.
9. This is another
statement that is flattering to a person's self image, and therefore
will be accepted by most people as being true for them.
Because most
astrological personality readings are of a generic
character, it is easy for people to make the mistake of what
psychologists call the "fallacy of personal validation" where a
person convinces themselves that a statement is applicable to them,
even though it may only be partly so. This mistake can occur if the
person believes, even to a slight degree, that astrology may contain a
grain of truth.
Another
technique used by astrologers (and most other fortune tellers)
to add credence to their art, is the obtaining of information from
their clients by subtle questioning and deduction. For example, a pale
band of skin where a wedding ring should be may indicate divorce or the
death of a spouse. Information obtained by careful observation and
questioning can then be fed back to the client, and create a false
impression that the astrologer and his art are capable of producing
accurate predictions.
Other methods
astrologers can employ in an attempt to increase their
accuracy are as follows the use of statistics, polls and surveys in
order to obtain information about the population, and thereby obtain a
profile of the average person or a specific group. For example,
research carried out at the Monash Population and Urban Research Centre
at Monash University, has revealed that many unemployed or low-income
earning men are unable to attract or keep partners the stress caused by
their situation interferes with the formation of relationships. In
addition, many women appear to be unwilling to commit themselves to men
in this situation.
An astrologer
who is conversant with these findings may be able to
deduce, after having established his client's financial situation by
observation or subtle questioning, potential or actual relationship
problems.
Conclusion
The predictive
powers of astrology are illusionary.
Astrologers
rely on generic personality readings, statistics, subtle
questioning and psychological manipulation to convince their clients
that they are capable of providing them with a glimpse of future
events. Moreover, their clients often fall victim to the fallacy of
personal validation, and thereby convince themselves that the
prediction is more accurate than it really is.
The theory
upon which the art is founded the idea that celestial
influences at birth determine personality and destiny is not supported
by any empirical evidence.
The reason why
belief in astrology persists, despite this fact, is
because human nature has remained basically the same since the days of
ancient Babylon – people desire certainty in their lives, they wish to
know what the future holds in order to take advantage of opportunities
and avoid disasters, and astrology holds out this hope to people who
are willing to believe. Answer: Aquarius.
Bibiography:
Bergamini, D. et al The Universe, Time Inc., 1964.
Bosanko, S. (Ed.) How to Predict Your Future, Treasure Press, London,
1988.
Eysenck, H. & M. Mindwatching, Michael Joseph Ltd., London, 1981.
Gordon, H. Extra Sensory Deception, Macmillan of Canada, 1988.
Lewinsohn, R. Prophets and Prediction, Martin Secker & Warburg
Ltd., London, 1961.
MacNeice, L. Astrology, Aldus Books Ltd., London, 1964.
McIntosh, C. Astrologers & Their Creed, Arrow Books Ltd., London,
1971.
Mitton, S. (Ed.) The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Astronomy, Jonathan Cape
Ltd., London, 1977.
Myles, M. F. Textbook For Midwives (8th edition), Churchill Livingston,
New York, 1975.
Parker, J. & D. Sun & Moon Signs, Lifetime Distributors,
Australia, 1997.
Seligmann, K. The History of Magic and the Occult, Gramercy Books, New
York, 1997.
Tauber, G.E. Man's View of the Universe, Crown Publishers Inc., New
York, 1979.
Tillyard, E. M. W. The Elizabethan World Picture, Penguin Books Ltd.,
England, 1976.
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